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SATUBDAT, JAVUABT 90, 191T.RECORD.The Germans and ScienceBy Paul Baseband, Member oI the French Academy and former President of the Ohamber of Deputies.When the learned societies of France replied last year to the manifesto of the German intellectuals. Professor Gabriel Petit and M. Maurice Leudet began an inquiry among our most eminent scholars regaiding the part that Germany has played in the development of the sciences. Their conclusion is that Germany is far from possessing the scientific superiority which she attributes to herself.With certain exceptions the Germans have especially excelled in putting into use discoveries made by others. As Sir William Ramsay has said: The greatest works of scientific thought are not due to scholars of the Teutonic race; even the precocious applications of science do not come from rtwem ’On November 3, 1914, the Academy of Sciences, associating itself with the protests of the other academies of the Institute of France, expressed itself thus:The Academy must recall attention to the fact that the Latin and Anglo-Saxon civilisations are the ones that have, in the last three centuries, produced most of the great discoveries :n the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences, besides being the authors of the ch;ef inventions of the nineteenth century. We protest, therefore, against the attempt to tie the intellectual future of Europe to the future of German science: against the assertion that the safety of European civilisation depends upon the victory of German militarism, the Siamese twin of German Kultur.”Upon this declaration the following pages are a stirring commentary.In the Teutonic conception, science, history, philosophy, religion, are national forces, like the army, diplomacy, credit. From this point of view science is no longer a universal and human thing, it belongs primarily to the service of the State. As Germany assumes to dominate the other nations, German science” ought to be superior to that of other peoples. In the words of Fustel de Coulanges, the interest of Germany is the ultimate aim of these indefatigable seekers.For us Frenchmen it is not a matter of minimising Germany's share, it is a matter of not allowing our own to be taken. France should no longer be a dupe of her own disinterested spirit. To put the case to a test, to perform a labour of justice, and not only to patriotism—this was the object sought to be attained by Messrs Petit and Leudet. In giving publicity to the words of more than twenty French scientists, including those most highly qualified, it is not only France that they mean to serve, but truth. France has no need of feints and artifices to mark her place.To appreciate the part played by each nation we must distinguish between invention, genius, and the works that follow discovery: the application of it, or the scholastic, industrial, and commercial organisation of the idea, or, again, publicity, propaganda.It is in application and organisation that Germany excels: it is in these that we should profit from her lessons and perfect our methods. But creation belongs above all to France; in the seventeenth century, Descartes and Pascal: in the eighteenth, Lavoisier, and in the nineteenth, Pasteur.In 1907 M. G. Darboux, permanent Secretary of the Academy of Sciences, drew the following picture of Jhe scientific achievement ot France in the first, half of the nineteenth century:If there should appear some day a man who desires to write the complete history of our society, he will pause With patriotic joy over the period covering the first half of the nineteenth century. The academy then gathered into it's fold along with the scholars created by the slow labours of the monarchy all those who had been brought into prominence by the fruitful agitations of the Revolution and of the emnire: Lagrange. Laplace, Monge, Legendre, Cauchy, Poissot, Sturm, in mathematics; Dupin, de Prony, Ponce-let, Gambier, Seguier, in mechanics; Messier. Arago. Bouvard. Lalande. De-tambrc, in astronomy; Buache, Beau-temps-Beaupre, de Freycinet. in geo-graph’': Biot. Ampere,. Fourier. Pois-so:i, Malus. Fresnel, Becnuercl, Reg. naultjn physics: Berthollet, Gay-Lussac, Vauquelm, Dulong. Dumas. Bous-ringault, Proust, Chevreul, Thenard, Pslard in chemistry: Ilauy. Brong-niart, Ramon, in mineralogy: Cuvier, de Jussieu. Lamarck, Mirbel Lacepcde. Geoffroy Saint-Hibire, Milne-Edwards, in natural history; Larrey. Portal, Diipuvfren. Pinel, Corvisart, Flourens. Magendic, Pelletain, in medicine and surgery, and as many more who will be a lasting honour to the French name.”In short, at no moment has any other nation presented to the world so many creators. Germany at that timehad only one great naiife to point to— that of Gauss, the mathematician and astronomer of Goftingen. France has never denied that he was the equal of the most illustrious.The savants cited by M. Darboux have opened up new paths in all domains. Cauchy transformed the methods of mathematical analysis. General Poncelet gave an impetus to geometry whose effects are still felt to-day. Ampere created electrodynamics and prepared the way for the discovery of telegraphy by electric wires. Fourier, celebrated for his theory of heat, was the true creator of mathematical physics, which came into beng through the works of Lagrange and Laplace. Ber-thollet and Gay-Lussac were, after Lavoisier, the great law-givers of chemistry. Hauy founded mineralogy. Lamarck, Cuvier, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, from different points ol view, laid the foundations of zoological philosophy. From their time the whole world bowed before the superiority of French science. All nations came to our school. In England, in Germany, men studied our discoveries, applied them, and tried to follow up and perfect them. The circle of scientific studies was broadening eveiy day.But in France our scientists also found worthy minds to follow up their discoveries. In the domain of mathematics the name of Henri Poincare 6hines with especial brilliance. Gabriel Lame, one of the ablest geometricians, followed up the labours of Fourier; Galois, though he died early, immortalised himself by his thory of groups; Charles Hermite won a place in the first rank of theoretical mathematics and abstruse analysis; Michel Chasles completed the discoveries of Poncelet and published an incomparable history of the progress and development of geometry ;Joseph Liouville, a man of encyclopedic mmd, will live especially through his theorems regarding the theory of functions; Joseph Bertrand, a precocious inventor, published the finest studies on the calculation of probabilities and on mathematical physics; Ossian Bonnet developed infinitesimal geometry; Georges Halphen, the glorious soldier of 1870, left us a great treatise on elliptical functions and precious original memoirs.In physics Fresnel created the wave theory of light: Sadi Carnot, whose stroke of genius was developed later by the Germans Robermayer and Clausius, laid the foundations of the doctrine of energy by making known the principle with which physicians have honoured his name; Regnauit by his memorable experiences furnished engineers as well as theoretical investigators with the most valuable data; Amagat, who died in 1914, continued this work.^If Ront-gen made himself illustrious by his discovery of the X-rays, w|at progress does radioactive science not owe to Becquerel, Curie, and their emulators?Hertz discovered the waves that bear his name, but the directing ideas had been given by an English genius, Maxwell. To Branly and to the Italian Marconi belongs the honour of wireless telegraphy. The first idea of the telephone came from the Frenchman Bourseul.Foucault, Fizeua, Cornu discovered new methods of measuring the speed of light; photography is due to Daguerre, photography in colours to Lipp-mann.In mechanics it is to Seguin’s invention of the tubular boiler that we owe the great improvement of railways. To Dupuy de Lome belongs the idea of the armoured cruiser. It was Marcel Deprez who first solved the problem of transporting power to distant points. The motor run by explosions is a discovery of our engineers; what the automobile owes to Forest and Levassor is already known.After the labours of Meusnier and Charles, aeronautics long remained an essentially French science. The first dirigibles were made by Dupuy de Lome and Colonel Renard. In 1852 II. Giffard constructed a gas balloon equipped with a screw and rudder. It was two Frenchmen, Penaud in 1871 and Tatin in 1879, who demons, ra red by experience the possibility of mechanical flight. Marey, by studying the flight of birds, and Renard. by his mathematical studies, gave us the theorv of aviation. Ader and Santos-Dumont, in ad-vence of the Wright brothers, built rudimentary and imperfect aeroplanes which were yet able to remain some mo. menls in the air. Farman. in 1908, wrote the first page in the golden book of aviation.If Germany gave the world Bessel, Fraumhofor, and Kirchoff, the Frenchman Lc Verrier. by his discovery of Neptune and his works on ceYrtial mechanics. placed himself in the first rank of modern astronomers. Janssen, who created the spectroscope, should be ranked with the creators of physicalastronomy. The renpwn of General Perrier, who has been called the restorer of French geodesy, is universal. Admiral Mouchez directed the international project of the chart of the heavens. Bouquet de la Grye and d’Abbadie took an important part in observing the two transits of Venus. Tisserand continued the work of Laplace by publishing an admirable treatise on celestial mechanics. The new measure of the arc of Quito was made under the direction of the Academy of Sciences by the officers of our geodetic service. The great works of Henri Poincare have furnished the latest contributions to the essential theories of mathematical ustronomy, to the problem of the three bodies, and to the study of the configuration of celestial bodies.In geography and navigation the French genius has shone with an incomparable brilliancy. Certain names awaken bright memories: Lesseps,Grandidier, Brazza, Marchand.In the domain of the physical sciences the part taken by France is no less glorious or fruitful. J. B. Dumas, Laurent, Gerhardt, Adolphe Wurtz discovered the fundamental laws of organic chemistry. The wonderful labours of Berthelot in synthetic chemistry effaced every boundary line between mineral and organic chemistry, establishing that unity which had so long been denied. His studies in thermal chemistry enabled him to penetrate the constitution of explosive substances, the theory of which he restored. He it was who Erst employed electrical energy in organic chemistry to combine the elements.Deville gave to industry a new metal, aluminium. To him and his students is due the beautiful and fruitful theory of dissociation, which has become the first chapter in physical chemistry. H. Moissan, who isolated fiourine, has given to the scientific world all his labours for the creation of an electrical furnace.How can we forget that Pasteur wa9 first of all a chemist? It was his studies in crystallography that led him to take up the subject of fermentations; and his researches in fermentation led him on to those studies of biological chemistry and the microbe theory which have transformed medicine and surgery. F'ifteen years later Robert Koch merely borrowed, in the botanical realm, his method of cultures on gelatine. It is well known that the isolation of the tubercular bacillus, whose existence Villeman affirmed as far back as 1805, was realised by the German bacteriologist.Germany also has a right to be proud of her chemists, Liebig, Bunsen. Hoffmann, Kekule. Applied and industrial chemistry has been one of the sources of her prodigious economic develop-ment. Her spirit of perseverance and logic has given her free range in this vast domain; but only rarely has she possessed what is the chief characteristic of French genius—-intuition, the forerunner of invention.To France botanical science owes Bomet, the distinguished phytologist; Zeiller and Renaut, the founders of paleobotany; van Tieghem, whose works have brought him a renown with his modesty never sought.In mineralogy Hauy found disciples in our own country who were his equals. Delafosse, Bravais, Pasteur established molecular theories; optical properties were studied especially by Des Cloiz-eaux, de Senarmont, Mallard; Fouque and Michel Levy established a new science, petrography; we owe to Henri Sainte-Claire Deyille, to Daubree, to Friedel, to Hautefeuille reproductions by synthesis of minerals found in nature; Albert Gaudry and his pupils made the most precious contribution to the study of fossil animals; Elie de Beaumont will go into history as one of the greatest geologists of modern times; Hebert, Gosselet, and Marcel Bertrand have carried forward our knowledge of the structure of our planet: the works of Charles Sainte-Claire Deville and of F'ouque on volcanoes are authorities.Zoological science finds eminent representatives in F'ranee: De Quatre-fages, Alphor.se Milne Edwards, who followed up the labours of his father; rle Lacaze-Duthiers. creator of the laboratories of maritime zoology; Alfred Giard, author of beautiful studies in zoological philosoph y, and histologists of distinction, founders of,schools, Robin and Ranvier.In medicine and surgery French saxauls stand in the first rank. Bichat, creator of general anatomy; Laennec, who invented ausculation; Bretonneau, who has been called the French Sydenham; Villemin, who proved that tuberculosis was contagious; Claude Bernard, of whom it was said that he was physiology itself;” Brown-Sequard, who applied the doctrine of internal secretions to the art of healing; Paul BertL, author of many beautiful experimental researches in atmospheric pressure and mountain fever; Charcot, founder of the Salpetriere School; Oilier, the great Lyons surgeon; Marey, who was led by his study of the movements of animal* to the invention of the cinematograph; Chauveau, the contemporary and rival of Pasteur; Laveran, who first analysed the origin and nature of swamp fever* and diseases due to blood parasites; Charles Richet, who introduced into medicine two fundamental theories, serotheraphy and, more recently, anaphylaxis; Duclaux, Dr. Roux, Nocard, worthy students of the great Pasteur, to whom the world owes the celebrated establishment in the Rue Dutot—and with them the Russian, Metchnikoff, who discovered phagocytose—are masters before Germany herself is compelled to bow.Finally, if one considers the Institute of FYance at the present moment, can Germany offer the equivalent of the mathematical section of our Academy of Sciences: Jordan, Darboux, Emiie Picard, Appell, Painleve, Humbert, Hadamard? And if we did not fear to weary our readers by too long an enumeration, could we not, by examining the other sections of the same academy, extend this comparison?It will be noted that France, while holding an eminent place in the domain of science in bygone times, has not degenerated. To-day, as yesterday, it is on French soil that the greatest creative achievements find birth. 'But, because France has the spirit of justice, she knows how to give credit to men of other lands who nave enriched universal science. The English have every right to glory in the names of Dalton, Darwin, Sylvester, Cayley, Maxwell. Lord Kelvin, Faraday, Lord Lister, Lord Raleigh, Sir William Ramsay, Sir Patrick Manson, and many other great* innovators whose ideas have scattered their seeds across the world. The Italians, to speak only of physicians and chemists, can be proud of Avogadro. Malaguti, Sobrero, Bertagnini, Canni-zaro. And as to Germany, we are not ignorant of what science owes, in mathematics, to Jacobi; in physics, to Ohm; in chemistry, to Liebig, Wohler, Bunsen, and Fischer; in biology, to Jean Muller, to Schwann, to Helmholtz, to Rodolphe Virchow, to Ehrlich, to Behring. But what we deny is the hegemony to German science. We hold for ourselves the honour of having been the leaders, the initiators, in the scientific domain, as in so many others, and the nations in whom a spirit of justice survives will recall the services we have rendered.Ten years ago the Royal Society of London had the idea of appealing to all countries for the publication of an annual catalogue containing only the titles or the treatises in pure science published in the whole world. At present this catalogue consists each year of sixteen or seventeen compact volumes. The fact illustrates the intense development of scientific work, day by day, everywhere. Now the Germans, affecting no longer to use the French language, have urged every scientist to write in his own idiom, so that, to keep infonned, one would haVe to know ten languages.In order that no part of this labour should be lost, and that it should be at the service of all, a certain co-ordination is necessary. The Germans have long understood this: they wished to take the direction of the movement and to bring under subjection any science that was not born among them.The German, in fact, is both disciplined and meticulous; he does not comprehend that the same thing can be done in two different ways; he does not see that, if coordination is good, liberty left in some degree to the choice of the worker vivifies and enriches the product. That is why the German is so proud; why, when he has caught up and triturated with his own methods the rich ideas which come to him from elsewhere, he imagines that these ideas are his, that it is he who has conceived them.A word in the German language expresses this tendency exactly—the verb bearbeiten,” to work over. Frequently the German works things over. He docs not admit that there can be found under the heavens any methods of work different from his own.We think, on the contrary, that there it nd need to do violence io anybody. In the scientific domain, as in others, each country should be guided by its own genius. It should apply itself to developing its own natural gifts in such a way as to form a harmonious whole, and different, in certain respects, from that of iis neighbour. An orchestra is not made up of one kind of instrument*
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Perth W A Record
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Sat, Jan 20, 1917
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